Councils & Creeds

Luther’s 1522 New Testament: The Four Books He Set Apart

Did Luther remove books from the Bible? Not from the New Testament. In 1522 he set four apart: Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelation. What he did, and why.

Nestorianism Explained: The Heresy That Made the Church Define Mary as Mother of God

Nestorianism split Christ into two persons and refused to call Mary Theotokos. Here is what Nestorius actually taught, how Ephesus answered, and why the 'Nestorian Church' is misnamed.

The Eunomian Heresy Explained: The Men Who Claimed to Know God’s Essence

Eunomianism, the radical Arianism of Aëtius and Eunomius, claimed God’s essence could be fully known—and was condemned at Constantinople in 381.

Marcellus of Ancyra and the Marcellian Heresy: Why the Creed Says His Kingdom Will Have No End

Marcellus of Ancyra fought Arianism so hard he fell into the opposite error—a Trinity that expands and contracts. The Creed's 'no end' clause answers him.

Photinus of Sirmium and the Photinian Heresy: When Christ Becomes a Mere Man

Photinus of Sirmium taught that Christ was a mere man, exalted but not preexistent. His name became the early Church's shorthand for denying the Incarnation.

The Pneumatomachian Heresy Explained: The Spirit-Fighters Who Forced the Creed’s Third Article

The Pneumatomachians ('Spirit-fighters') denied the Holy Spirit's divinity. Their challenge produced the third article of the Creed at Constantinople in 381.

The Filioque: How One Word Split the Church—and Whether It Still Has To

The filioque—'and the Son'—is the word that helped divide Christendom. Its biblical roots, the long schism, and why Rome and Orthodoxy are closer than most think.

Why Catholics Confess to a Priest: A History of the Sacrament of Reconciliation

A scholarly Catholic history of the sacrament of reconciliation: its biblical, patristic, medieval, and Reformation roots, for curious Protestant readers.

The First Council of Constantinople (381): How the Church Finished the Creed

The First Council of Constantinople (381) confessed the Holy Spirit’s divinity, completed the Creed we recite at Mass, and became the Second Ecumenical Council.

What the Council of Trent Actually Said About Justification

A Catholic convert reads the Council of Trent's 1547 Decree on Justification verbatim—and finds that what Protestants are taught it says is not what it says.

2 Kings 13:20–21 and the Bones of Elisha: A Catholic Exegesis of the Old Testament's Relic Miracle

A Catholic exegesis of 2 Kings 13:20–21: the Hebrew, the LXX, Sirach 48, and the patristic case that Elisha's bones warrant relic veneration.

The Deuterocanonical Books: What They Are, Where They Came From, and Why Christians Disagree About Them

What the deuterocanonical books (the seven books most Protestants call the Apocrypha) are, where they came from, and why Christians disagree about them.

The Council of Trent (1545–1563): Catholic Doctrine, Reform, and the Reformation's Long Answer

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) answered the Reformation, defined Catholic doctrine on Scripture, justification, and the sacraments, and reshaped the Church.

The Council of Ephesus (431): Theotokos, Nestorius, and the Fight Over Christ's Identity

Ephesus (431) condemned Nestorius, defined Mary as Theotokos, and fixed the single-subject Christology every later ecumenical council inherited.

Did the Catholic Church Ban the Bible? What History Actually Shows

Did the Catholic Church ban the Bible? Examining the councils, indices, and regional restrictions—what's myth, what's exaggeration, and what's actually true.

Scriptural Inerrancy and the Hard Passages of the Old Testament

How Catholic inerrancy handles the conquest of Canaan, the Aqedah, the imprecatory psalms, and other hard Old Testament passages. Five approaches.

Canon 28 of Chalcedon: The Canon That Divided Rome and Constantinople

Canon 28 of the Council of Chalcedon (451) recognized Constantinople as 'new Rome' with privileges second only to old Rome. Why Pope Leo rejected it — and why it still matters.

The Chalcedonian Definition: What the Council Actually Declared About Christ

What is the Chalcedonian Definition? The 451 AD formula declared Christ is one person in two natures — divine and human — 'without confusion, without change, without division, without separation.'

The Arian Heresy Explained: What Arius Taught and Why the Church Condemned It

What is Arianism? A Catholic guide to the Arian heresy — what Arius actually taught, why it was condemned at Nicaea, and why the debate over Christ's divinity still matters.

Did Constantine Create Christianity? Separating History from Myth

Did Constantine invent Christianity or choose what books went in the Bible? A historian's guide to what Constantine actually did — and didn't do — at the Council of Nicaea.

The Nicene Creed Explained: A Phrase-by-Phrase Guide to the Church’s Central Confession

What does the Nicene Creed mean? A Catholic phrase-by-phrase guide to the full text of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed — its history, theology, and why it still matters.

What Happened to the Jesuits? A Catholic Lament for a Great Order

From 36,000 members to under 14,000—what happened to the Jesuits? A historically grounded Catholic assessment of the Society of Jesus's decline.

The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Reform in the Wake of Luther

A comprehensive examination of the Catholic Counter-Reformation: the Council of Trent, the founding of the Jesuits, and the Church's response to the Protestant Reformation.

The First Vatican Council (1869-1870)—What It Taught and Why It Matters

Vatican I defined papal infallibility and primacy while defending faith against rationalism. Explore its two major constitutions, the context that prompted it, and its enduring significance for Catholic theology.

Lumen Gentium and Salvation Outside the Church

What does Lumen Gentium 16 teach about salvation outside the Church? A clear Catholic explanation of LG 14-16, extra ecclesiam nulla salus, and invincible ignorance.

The First Council of Nicaea: What It Decided and Why It Matters

What happened at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD? A Catholic examination of the Arian crisis, the meaning of homoousios, and why the Nicene Creed still defines Christian orthodoxy.

The Holy Trinity Explained: A Catholic Guide to the Central Mystery of Faith

What is the Holy Trinity? A Catholic explanation of one God in three persons — the scriptural foundations, Nicene doctrine, and why it matters for the Christian life.

Apollinarius of Laodicea and His Christological Heresy

Apollinarius of Laodicea denied that Christ had a human rational mind, replacing it with the divine Logos. Gregory of Nazianzus's devastating reply—'what is not assumed is not healed'—sealed the condemnation at Constantinople I (381).

The Meletian Schism: The Egyptian Church Crisis That Shaped Nicaea

The Meletian Schism divided the Egyptian church over lapsed Christians during the Diocletian persecution. Learn how it shaped the Council of Nicaea's Canon 6 and intersected with Arianism.

The Council of Chalcedon (451): How Political Rivalry Reshaped Christendom

The Council of Chalcedon (451 AD) resolved a Christological crisis but reshaped the political map of Christendom. How it destroyed Alexandria, elevated the papacy, and set the stage for the Great Schism.